RECRUITMENT METHODS AND RETENTION IN RESEARCH STUDIES OF HARD-TO-REACH COMMUNITIES MARGINALISED DUE TO DISCRIMINATION, AND SOCIAL STIGMATIZATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37762/jgmds.13-1.837Keywords:
Hard to reach, gender minorities, discrimination, social stigmatization, ethnic minorities, recruitement, retentionAbstract
OBJECTIVES
Recruiting hard-to-reach and marginalized populations into health-related research studies can be challenging. This systematic review aimed to synthesize evidence on the identification and effectiveness of different recruitment and retention methods for marginalized communities.
METHODOLOGY
Seven databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and Proquest (Including Google Scholar for grey literature) were searched from January 1950 to June 2022 for studies recruiting marginalized groups and detailing recruitment and retention methods. Study details, population, recruitment and retention methods, outcomes, and limitations were extracted. The frequency of recruitment and retention methods was tallied, and narrative synthesis was conducted.
RESULTS
Of the 101 studies included, thirty-one studies met the inclusion criteria, covering populations including lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), racial and ethnic minorities, immigrants, and low socioeconomic groups. The most common recruitment methods were respondent-driven sampling (n=9), social media/online advertising (n=8), snowball sampling (n=7), and community outreach (n=6). Recruitment rates ranged from 2% to 91%, where reported.
CONCLUSION
Engaging minority communities involved direct community outreach methods such as presentations, health fairs, and in-person contact. Common retention strategies included financial incentives, culturally competent staff, and active engagement, yet no single method consistently proved most effective. Utilising a combination of tailored sampling approaches can mitigate the limitations inherent in individual methods. Enhanced reporting on recruitment and retention rates is essential for future studies.
Downloads
Metrics
References
Astorp M, Gade G, Emmersen J, Erbs A, Rasmussen S, Andersen S. Medical students meeting pandemic staff needs: duty, drives and dreads—a cross-sectional questionnaire survey at Aalborg University in Denmark. Med Res Arch. 2022;10(2). https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i2.2711 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v10i2.2711
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). United Nations guide for minorities. Geneva: OHCHR; [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/minorities/united-nations-guide-minorities
Hafeez H, Zeshan M, Tahir MA, Jahan N, Naveed S. Health care disparities among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: a literature review. Cureus. 2017;9(4):e1184. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1184. PMID: 28529839 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.1184
World Bank Group. Life on the margins: survey results of the experiences of LGBTI people in southeastern Europe. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2018. Available from: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/388701525115544704
Kohnepoushi P, Nikouei M, Cheraghi M, Hasanabadi P, Rahmani H, Moradi M, et al. Prevalence of suicidal thoughts and attempts in the transgender population of the world: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2023;22:28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-023-00458-y. PMID: 37245729 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-023-00460-3
World Health Organization (WHO). Men who have sex with men. Geneva: WHO; [cited 2024 Jun 13]. Available from: https://www.who.int/teams/global-hiv-hepatitis-and-stis-programmes/populations/men-who-have-sex-with-men
Benjamins MR, Silva A, Saiyed NS, De Maio FG. Comparison of all-cause mortality rates and inequities between Black and White populations across the 30 most populous US cities. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2032086. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.32086. PMID: 33464344 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.32086
Anderson NB, Bulatao RA, Cohen B, National Research Council (US) Panel on Race, Ethnicity, and Health. Racial and ethnic disparities in health and mortality among the US elderly population. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2004. https://doi.org/10.17226/11036 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/11036
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Effective inclusion of LGBT persons. Geneva: OHCHR; [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/ie-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity/effective-inclusion-lgbt-persons
OHCHR. Minorities and cohesive societies: equality, social inclusion, and socioeconomic participation. Geneva: OHCHR; 2023 Dec. [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2023/12/minorities-and-cohesive-societies-equality-social-inclusion-and
Shatilwe JT, Kuupiel D, Mashamba-Thompson TP. Evidence on access to healthcare information by women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review. PLoS One. 2021;16(5):e0251633. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251633. PMID: 33983950 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251633
Scheim A, Kacholia V, Logie C, Chakrapani V, Ranade K, Gupta S. Health of transgender men in low-income and middle-income countries: a scoping review. BMJ Glob Health. 2020;5(5):e003471. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003471. PMID: 32461376 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003471
Asian Development Bank. Viet Nam: improving access to health care for ethnic minority women—2010. Manila: Asian Development Bank; 2010 May 1 [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.adb.org/results/viet-nam-improving-access-health-care-ethnic-minority-women-2010
Soors W, Dkhimi F, Criel B. Lack of access to health care for African indigents: a social exclusion perspective. Int J Equity Health. 2013;12(1):91. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-12-91. PMID: 24308361 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-12-91
Carey B. Leave no one behind: Hurricane Katrina and the rescue of Tulane Hospital. Clearbrook Press; 2006.
World Bank Group, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Investing in a research revolution for LGBTI inclusion. Washington (DC): World Bank; 2016. Available from: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099556001062238060
Avdiu J. A lens into working with vulnerable and marginalized populations: Blog 3. New York (NY): Teachers College, Columbia University; 2023 Feb 14 [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.tc.columbia.edu/institutional-review-board/irb-blog/2023/a-lens-into-working-with-vulnerable-and-marginalized-populations--blog-3/
Lampe NM, Barbee H, Tran NM, Bastow S, McKay T. Health disparities among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer older adults: a structural competency approach. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2024;98(1):39–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/00914150231176324. PMID: 37342156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00914150231171838
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Unfair and unjust practices harm LGBTQ+ people and drive health disparities. Atlanta (GA): CDC; 2024 May 16 [cited 2024 Jun 13]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco-health-equity/collection/lgbtq-unfair-and-unjust.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Public health service study of untreated syphilis at Tuskegee and Macon County, AL—timeline. Atlanta (GA): CDC; 2024 Mar 7 [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm
Rojas-Gaona CE, Hong JS, Peguero AA. The significance of race/ethnicity in adolescent violence: a decade of review, 2005–2015. J Crim Justice. 2016;46:137–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.05.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.05.001
Masa R, Shangani S, Operario D. Socioeconomic status and psychosocial resources mediate racial/ethnic differences in psychological health among gay and bisexual men: a longitudinal analysis using structural equation modeling. Am J Mens Health. 2021;15(2):15579883211001197. https://doi.org/10.1177/15579883211001197. PMID: 33726533 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/15579883211001197
Whitton SW, Sarno EL, Josza K, Garcia CP, Newcomb ME. Recruiting and retaining sexual and gender minority couples in intervention research: lessons learned from trials of tailored relationship education programs. Fam Process. 2023;62(3):932–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12832. PMID: 36396443 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12880
Bonevski B, Randell M, Paul C, Chapman K, Twyman L, Bryant J, et al. Reaching the hard-to-reach: a systematic review of strategies for improving health and medical research with socially disadvantaged groups. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14:42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-42. PMID: 24669751 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-42
Steventon L, Nicum S, Man K, Chaichana U, Wei L, Chambers P. A systematic review of ethnic minority participation in randomised controlled trials of systemic therapies for gynecological cancers. Gynecol Oncol. 2024;184:178–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2024.02.016. PMID: 38334084 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2024.01.052
Wong R, Amano T, Lin S-Y, Zhou Y, Morrow-Howell N. Strategies for the recruitment and retention of racial/ethnic minorities in Alzheimer disease and dementia clinical research. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2019;16(5):458–71. https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205016666190507110148. PMID: 31070184 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205016666190321161901
Wali N, Huda MN, Gill T, Green J, Renzaho AMN. A systematic review of recruitment and retention of ethnic minorities and migrants in obesity prevention randomised controlled trials. Int J Obes (Lond). 2024;48(5):873–87. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-024-01545-z. PMID: 38630511 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-024-01545-z
United Nations. Goal 3: Good health and well-being. The Global Goals; 2021 Sep 17 [cited 2024 Jun 14]. Available from: https://www.globalgoals.org/goals/3-good-health-and-well-being/
United Nations. Goal 10: Reduced inequalities. The Global Goals; 2021 Sep 17 [cited 2024 Jun 13]. Available from: https://www.globalgoals.org/goals/10-reduced-inequalities/
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG; PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097. PMID: 19621072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Fortuna LR, Alegría M, Gao S. Retention in depression treatment among ethnic and racial minority groups in the United States. Depress Anxiety. 2010;27(5):485–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20685. PMID: 20455250 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20685
Gonzales XF, Heeringa SG, Briceño EM, Mehdipanah R, Levine DA, Langa KM, et al. Mexican Americans participate in research more than expected while non-Hispanic Whites participate less than expected. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2022;33(2):590–6. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2022.0048. PMID: 35522736 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2022.0049
Riper H, Bolier L, Elling A. The home party: development of a low threshold intervention for "not yet reached" parents in adolescent substance use prevention. J Subst Use. 2005;10(3):141–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500137152 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500038756
Arayasirikul S, Chen YH, Jin H, Wilson E. A Web 2.0 and epidemiology mash-up: using respondent-driven sampling in combination with social network site recruitment to reach young trans women. AIDS Behav. 2016;20(6):1265–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1232-2. PMID: 26511908 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1234-4
Pines HA, Semple SJ, Magis-Rodríguez C, Harvey-Vera A, Strathdee SA, Patrick R, et al. A comparison of the effectiveness of respondent-driven and venue-based sampling for identifying undiagnosed HIV infection among cisgender men who have sex with men and transgender women in Tijuana, Mexico. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24(1):e25688. https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25688. PMID: 33432646 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25688
Personality's moderating effects on the relationship between minority stress and mental health [Internet]. Featured database. 2018 [cited 2024 Jun 13]. Available from: https://search.proquest.com/openview/e52fba551a55748c5138eb07f02d0538/1
Tsaltskan V, Nguyen K, Eaglin C, Holers VM, Deane KD, Firestein GS. Comparison of web-based advertising and a social media platform as recruitment tools for underserved and hard-to-reach populations in rheumatology clinical research. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2022;4(8):623–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr2.11398. PMID: 35861969 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/acr2.11448
Shah NS, Shiraishi RW, Subhachaturas W, Anand A, Whitehead SJ, Tanpradech S, et al. Bridging populations—sexual risk behaviors and HIV prevalence in clients and partners of female sex workers, Bangkok, Thailand 2007. J Urban Health. 2011;88(3):533–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9540-3. PMID: 21225343 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-010-9542-5
Ellman TM, Hawkins K, Benitez J, Negron R, Chang S, Palmer S, et al. Representation of Latinos and Blacks in screening for and enrollment into preventive HIV vaccine trials in New York City. Vaccine. 2015;33(48):6809–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.10.082. PMID: 26549373 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.09.091
Green MA, Kim MM, Barber S, Odulana AA, Godley PA, Howard DL, et al. Connecting communities to health research: development of the Project CONNECT minority research registry. Contemp Clin Trials. 2013;35(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2013.03.006. PMID: 23562381 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2013.01.001
Hui SKA, Miller SM, Hazuda L, Engelman K, Ellerbeck EF. Novel method for recruiting representative at-risk individuals into cancer prevention trials: online health risk assessment in employee wellness programs. J Cancer Educ. 2016;31(3):421–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-015-0839-z. PMID: 25920318 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-015-0927-8
Nichols L, Martindale-Adams J, Burns R, Coon D, Ory M, Mahoney D, et al. Social marketing as a framework for recruitment: illustrations from the REACH study. J Aging Health. 2004;16(5 Suppl):157S–176S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264304268146. PMID: 15448291 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264304269727
Loutfi D, Andersson N, Law S, Kgakole L, Salsberg J, Haggerty J, et al. Reaching marginalized young women for HIV prevention in Botswana: a pilot social network analysis. Glob Health Promot. 2020;27(3):74–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975919852680. PMID: 31146566 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975918820803
Sankaré IC, Bross R, Brown AF, Del Pino HE, Jones LF, Morris DM, et al. Strategies to build trust and recruit African American and Latino community residents for health research: a cohort study. Clin Transl Sci. 2015;8(5):412–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12276. PMID: 25963032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cts.12273
Beyrer C, Malone J, Baral S, Wang Z, De Rio C, Mayer KH, et al. Comparing recruitment strategies to engage hard-to-reach men who have sex with men living with HIV with unsuppressed viral loads in four US cities: results from HPTN 078. J Int AIDS Soc. 2021;24(2):e25798. https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25798. PMID: 33594797 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25798
Keshinro B, Crowell TA, Nowak RG, Adebajo S, Peel S, Gaydos CA, et al. High prevalence of HIV, chlamydia and gonorrhoea among men who have sex with men and transgender women attending trusted community centres in Abuja and Lagos, Nigeria. J Int AIDS Soc. 2016;19(1):21270. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.1.21270. PMID: 27838882 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.1.21270
Browne K. Snowball sampling: using social networks to research non‐heterosexual women. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8(1):47–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000081663 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000081663
Sok S, Hong R, Chhoun P, Chann N, Tuot S, Mun P, et al. HIV risks and recent HIV testing among transgender women in Cambodia: findings from a national survey. PLoS One. 2020;15(9):e0238314. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238314. PMID: 32956425 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238314
Zablotska IB, Frankland A, Holt M, de Wit J, Brown G, Maycock B, et al. Methodological challenges in collecting social and behavioural data regarding the HIV epidemic among gay and other men who have sex with men in Australia. PLoS One. 2014;9(11):e113167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113167. PMID: 25426701 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113167
Hatfield LA, Ghiselli ME, Jacoby SM, Cain-Nielsen A, Kilian G, McKay T, et al. Methods for recruiting men of color who have sex with men in prevention-for-positives interventions. Prev Sci. 2010;11(1):56–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0144-1. PMID: 19830589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-009-0149-6
Stahlman S, Johnston LG, Yah C, Ketende S, Maziya S, Trapence G, et al. Respondent-driven sampling as a recruitment method for men who have sex with men in southern sub-Saharan Africa: a cross-sectional analysis by wave. Sex Transm Infect. 2016;92(4):292–8. https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2015-052184. PMID: 26622048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2015-052184
Ochs-Balcom HM, Jandorf L, Wang Y. "It takes a village": multilevel approaches to recruit African Americans and their families for genetic research. J Community Genet. 2015;6(1):39–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12687-014-0199-8. PMID: 25398685 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12687-014-0199-8
Wentzell K, Walker HR, Hughes AS, Vessey JA. Engaging social media influencers to recruit hard-to-reach populations. Nurs Res. 2021;70(6):455–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNR.0000000000000530. PMID: 34420055 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/NNR.0000000000000544
Kiernan M, Phillips K, Fair JM, King AC. Using direct mail to recruit Hispanic adults into a dietary intervention: an experimental study. Ann Behav Med. 2000;22(1):89–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02895169. PMID: 10892533 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02895172
Lee SK, Sulaiman-Hill CR, Thompson SC. Overcoming language barriers in community-based research with refugee and migrant populations: options for using bilingual workers. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2014;14(1):11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-14-11. PMID: 24708887 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-14-11
Hatfield LA, Horvath KJ, Jacoby SM, Simon Rosser BR. Comparison of substance use and risky sexual behavior among a diverse sample of urban, HIV-positive men who have sex with men. J Addict Dis. 2009;28(3):208–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550880903014766. PMID: 20155586 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10550880903014726
Bavinton BR, Holt M, Grulich AE, Brown G, Zablotska IB, Prestage GP. Willingness to act upon beliefs about "treatment as prevention" among Australian gay and bisexual men. PLoS One. 2016;11(1):e0145847. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145847. PMID: 26807537 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145847
Pho AT, Bakken S, Lunn MR, Lubensky ME, Flentje A, Dastur Z, et al. Online health information seeking, health literacy, and human papillomavirus vaccination among transgender and gender-diverse people. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2022;29(2):285–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocab226. PMID: 34788473 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocab150
Ünlü Ince B, Cuijpers P, van 't Hof E, Riper H. Reaching and recruiting Turkish migrants for a clinical trial through Facebook: a process evaluation. Internet Interv. 2014;1(2):74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.05.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.05.003
Gile KJ, Johnston LG, Salganik MJ. Diagnostics for respondent-driven sampling. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc. 2015;178(1):241–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12059. PMID: 26366131 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rssa.12059
McCreesh N, Frost SDW, Seeley J, Katongole J, Tarsh MN, Ndunguse R, et al. Evaluation of respondent-driven sampling. Epidemiology. 2012;23(1):138–47. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31823ac17c. PMID: 22157309 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e31823ac17c
Beyrer C, Baral SD, van Griensven F, Goodreau SM, Chariyalertsak S, Wirtz AL, et al. Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. Lancet. 2012;380(9839):367–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60821-6. PMID: 22819660 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60821-6
Espinosa da Silva C, Smith LR, Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Harvey-Vera A, Nunes S, et al. Stigma and web-based sex seeking among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Tijuana, Mexico: cross-sectional study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2020;6(4):e14803. https://doi.org/10.2196/14803. PMID: 33064087 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/14803
Santa Maria D, Padhye N, Businelle M, Yang Y, Jones J, Sims A, et al. Efficacy of a just-in-time adaptive intervention to promote HIV risk reduction behaviors among young adults experiencing homelessness: pilot randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res. 2021;23(7):e26704. https://doi.org/10.2196/26704. PMID: 34270167 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2196/26704
Ejiogu N, Norbeck JH, Mason MA, Cromwell BC, Zonderman AB, Evans MK. Recruitment and retention strategies for minority or poor clinical research participants: lessons from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span study. Gerontologist. 2011;51(Suppl 1):S33–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnq118. PMID: 21565817 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr027
Taracuk MD, Koch JM. Use of a media intervention to increase positive attitudes toward transgender and gender diverse individuals. Int J Transgend Health. 2023;24(1):86–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2022.2031320 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2021.1878479
Young LE, Schumm P, Alon L, Bouris A, Ferreira M, Hill B, et al. PrEP Chicago: a randomized controlled peer change agent intervention to promote the adoption of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention among young Black men who have sex with men. Clin Trials. 2018;15(1):44–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1740774517730019. PMID: 28937704 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1740774517730012
Greder K, Reina AS. Procuring health: experiences of Mexican immigrant women in rural Midwestern communities. Qual Health Res. 2019;29(9):1334–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318815851. PMID: 30501563 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318816676
Johnston LG, Prybylski D, Raymond HF, Mirzazadeh A, Manopaiboon C, McFarland W. Case studies from around the world. Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(4):304–10. https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318282aacd. PMID: 23486495 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31827fd650
Fortuna LR, Perez DJ, Canino G, Sribney W, Alegria M. Prevalence and correlates of lifetime suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among Latino subgroups in the United States. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(4):572–81. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v68n0413. PMID: 17474809 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v68n0413
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr. Saima Aleem, Bilal Ahmad, Zala ., Safat Ullah, Fatima Khalid Qazi, Asad Ullah, Hessam Ul Haq, Sikandar Sultan, Mariyam Rahim, Rida Zarkaish, Sania Abdul Jalil, Fayaz Ahmad, Zeeshan Kibria, Zohaib Khan
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
